What Happened on December 25

Computing

1990 — Berners-Lee Unveils WorldWideWeb, First Browser

On December 25, 1990, Tim Berners-Lee released WorldWideWeb, the first browser and editor, along with the first server, CERN httpd.

At CERN, a NeXT computer now runs software that could change global communication. On December 25, 1990, Tim Berners-Lee released WorldWideWeb, the first web browser and a WYSIWYG HTML editor, marking the public debut of a system for navigating and creating pages on the emerging web. Running on NeXTSTEP, the browser also served as an editor, letting users craft pages with a visual interface. Berners-Lee released the first web server, CERN httpd, the same day, and the first website had appeared five days earlier. The browser's editing capability reflects his vision of a collaborative web, not a one-way broadcast. The software is now available to NeXT users, with protocols openly documented. The web remains niche, but this complete publishing platform is a crucial step toward wider use.

• Berners-Lee released the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, on December 25, 1990.
• The first web browser, WorldWideWeb, ran on the NeXTSTEP operating system.
• Berners-Lee also released the first web server, CERN httpd, on the same day.
• The first website, describing the World Wide Web project, was published on December 20, 1990.
• Berners-Lee's browser software also functioned as an editor for creating web pages.

World Affairs

1991 — Gorbachev Resigns, Transfers Power to Yeltsin; Soviet Flag Lowered

Mikhail Gorbachev steps down as Soviet president, handing nuclear codes to Boris Yeltsin, as the red flag is lowered from the Kremlin and the Soviet Union hurtles toward formal dissolution.

The Soviet Union effectively passed into history tonight. In a nationally televised address, President Mikhail Gorbachev resigned, handing his powers — including control of the nuclear launch codes — to Russian leader Boris Yeltsin. The red flag with the hammer and sickle was lowered from the Moscow Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the Russian tricolor.

Gorbachev's resignation, coming four months after the failed August coup by hardliners, sealed the collapse of the Communist Party and the end of a superpower that had dominated the world for seven decades. The formal dissolution is set for tomorrow, when the Soviet of the Republics is expected to adopt Declaration No. 142-N.

The resignation marks a stunning reversal for a man who came to power in 1985 promising reform. His policies of glasnost and perestroika opened the door to change but also unleashed forces that ultimately swept him aside.

• Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991 and transferred his presidential powers, including control of nuclear launch codes, to Boris Yeltsin.
• The Soviet flag was lowered from the Moscow Kremlin for the last time that evening and replaced with the Russian tricolor.
• The Soviet Union was formally dissolved the following day, 26 December 1991, by the Soviet of the Republics adopting Declaration No. 142-N.
• Gorbachev's resignation came four months after the failed August 1991 coup by hardliners, which led to the collapse of the Communist Party and the USSR's dissolution.

Europe

1989 — Ceaușescu and Wife Executed by Firing Squad

Romania's dictator and his wife Elena are executed by firing squad on Christmas Day after a drumhead trial.

When communist regimes fell across Eastern Europe in 1989, Romania's did not yield quietly. On Christmas Day, the world saw the final act: Nicolae Ceaușescu, the dictator who had ruled with an iron fist for 24 years, and his wife Elena were executed by firing squad in Târgoviște.

The couple were convicted of economic sabotage and genocide in a show trial before a drumhead military tribunal, after fleeing Bucharest by helicopter on December 22 when protesters stormed the party headquarters. They were captured in Târgoviște following a manhunt.

• Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena were executed by firing squad on 25 December 1989 in Târgoviște.
• The Ceaușescus were convicted of economic sabotage and genocide in a show trial before their execution.
• The Romanian revolution began in Timișoara in mid-December 1989 after an attempt to evict pastor László Tőkés.
• Over one thousand people died and thousands more were injured during the Romanian revolution.
• Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena fled Bucharest by helicopter on 22 December 1989 after protesters stormed the party headquarters.

Russia

2016 — Tu-154 Crash Kills 92, Including Army Choir

A Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 crashes into the Black Sea after takeoff from Sochi, killing all on board.

A Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 crashed into the Black Sea shortly after takeoff from Sochi, killing all 92 aboard. Among the dead were 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble, the official army choir, en route to a New Year's concert. The aircraft, built in 1983, went down minutes after departure. The ministry grounded all Tu-154s pending investigation.

• The Tu-154 crashed into the Black Sea just after takeoff from Sochi on 25 December 2016.
• All 92 people on board were killed, including 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble, an official army choir.
• The Russian Defence Ministry grounded all its Tu-154s on 27 December 2016 pending investigation into the crash.
• The aircraft was a 1983 Tupolev Tu-154.

The Holy Land Chronicle

1100 — Baldwin Crowned First King of Jerusalem in Bethlehem

On Christmas Day, Baldwin I received the crown at the Church of the Nativity, becoming the first crowned king of Jerusalem.

Two hundred knights and 300 to 700 foot-soldiers marched with Baldwin from Edessa on 2 October, and on Christmas Day he was crowned the first King of Jerusalem by Latin Patriarch Daimbert in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. Godfrey of Bouillon had been elected ruler but refused the crown, so Baldwin took it after Godfrey's death, meeting little resistance on the march.

• Latin Patriarch Daimbert crowned Baldwin I king in Bethlehem on 25 December 1100.
• Godfrey of Bouillon had been elected ruler of Jerusalem but chose not to be crowned, making Baldwin the first crowned king.
• Baldwin marched to Jerusalem after Godfrey's death, meeting little resistance, to claim the throne.
• Baldwin left Edessa on 2 October 1100 with about 200 knights and 300–700 foot-soldiers.
• Duqaq of Damascus attempted to ambush Baldwin near the Nahr al-Kalb River, but the qadi of Tripoli secretly warned him, enabling a rout.

The Norman Court

1066 — William Crowned King of England at Westminster

The Duke of Normandy received the English crown on Christmas Day, 1066, months after defeating Harold at Hastings.

William, Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, 1066. His invasion force of thousands of men and hundreds of ships landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September, and on 14 October he decisively defeated and killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings. Yet rebellions continued in the following years, and William was not secure on the throne until after 1072. He later ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of land-holdings, completed by 1086.

• William was crowned king on Christmas Day, 1066, in London.
• William's invasion force of thousands of men and hundreds of ships landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September 1066.
• William decisively defeated and killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066.
• William continued to face rebellions over the following years and was not secure on the English throne until after 1072.
• William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of land-holdings in England, completed by 1086.

Far Eastern Desk

1941 — Hong Kong Surrenders to Japan After 18 Days of Fighting

Governor Mark Aitchison Young yields the colony, ending 156 years of British rule and beginning a 1941-1945 occupation.

After 18 days of fierce fighting, the Union Jack came down over Hong Kong on Christmas Day as Governor Mark Aitchison Young surrendered the territory to Japan. The capitulation, announced by the colonial government, marked the start of an occupation that would last from 1941 to 1945. During the military occupation, the Japanese national anthem "Kimigayo" was played in official ceremonies, replacing British symbols of authority. The surrender interrupted 156 years of British rule, a period that would not resume until the handover to China on 1 July 1997, a date still far off.

• The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong lasted from 1941 to 1945.
• "Kimigayo", the national anthem of the Empire of Japan, was used during the Japanese military occupation of Hong Kong from 1941 to 1945.
• The occupation interrupted 156 years of British rule, which ended with the handover to China on 1 July 1997.

Leipzig Music

1724 — Bach Leads First Performance of Luther's Christmas Cantata

The cantor of St. Thomas's directs a new cantata based on a 200-year-old hymn, scored for soloists, choir, and orchestra.

Johann Sebastian Bach, cantor of St. Thomas's, led the Thomanerchor in the first performance of his cantata Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ on Christmas Day. The work sets Martin Luther's 200-year-old hymn, scored for four vocal soloists, four-part choir, two horns, timpani, three oboes, strings, and basso continuo. It is a work of about 20 minutes.

• Bach first performed the cantata on 25 December 1724, leading the Thomanerchor.
• The cantata is based on Martin Luther's hymn 'Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ', which was 200 years old in 1724.
• The cantata is scored for four vocal soloists, four-part choir, two horns, timpani, three oboes, strings, and basso continuo.
• Bach performed the cantata again on Christmas Day in 1731, 1732 or 1733, and twice in the 1740s.
• The cantata's duration is given as 20 minutes.

Moscow Dispatch

2000 — Putin Signs Law Adopting Soviet-Era Anthem

New anthem uses Alexandrov's melody with Mikhalkov's lyrics, replacing Glinka's 'Patriotic Song'.

In a move that reaches back across the political upheavals of the past decade, President Vladimir Putin has signed into law a bill officially adopting a new national anthem for Russia. The melody is by Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov, originally composed for the Soviet Union's anthem, with new lyrics by Sergey Mikhalkov, who co-wrote the original Soviet words.

• The new anthem uses the same melody as the Soviet anthem, composed by Alexander Alexandrov.
• New lyrics for the anthem were written by Sergey Mikhalkov, who had co-written the original Soviet lyrics.
• The federal legislature established and approved the music and new lyrics in December 2000.
• Former President Boris Yeltsin criticized Putin for supporting the reintroduction of the Soviet-era anthem.
• The anthem replaced the unpopular lyric-free 'Patriotic Song' by Mikhail Glinka, adopted in 1990.

Astronomical Observations

1758 — Palitzsch Spots Comet Halley Predicted

German farmer observes the comet, confirming Edmond Halley's 1705 prediction of its 1758 return.

Johann Georg Palitzsch, a farmer and amateur astronomer of Prohlis in Saxony, has this month observed a comet in the constellation Pisces, the very object that Edmond Halley, in his 1705 paper 'A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets', predicted would return in 1758. Halley, who died in 1742, did not live to see his prophecy fulfilled.

• Halley predicted the comet's return in 1758 in his 1705 paper 'A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets'.
• Halley did not live to witness the comet's return in 1758.
• The comet became generally known as Halley's Comet upon its predicted return in 1758.